DRAWING OF BLOOD
Working on the basis that fire,
water, earth and air controlled
the humours, physicians
believed the body would be
‘balanced’ by removing ‘bad
blood’ (they thought blood
was static and stagnated in
certain parts of the body).
Ailments were therefore
treated by clamping leeches to
the patient’s skin (sometimes
to the eyes). Over time,
physicians themselves were
nicknamed leeches.
PANDEMICS
THE HISTORY
& SCIENCE BEHIND THE
WORLD’S DEADLIEST
OUTBREAKS
INSIDE
HOW THE COVID-19
VACCINE WORKS
CAN WE WIN THE
WAR AGAINST VIRUSES?
BLACK
DEATH
THE MEDIEVAL
OUTBREAK
THAT RAVAGED
EUROPE
EXPOSED
FIND OUT HOW
A
VIRUS REALLY
WORKS
COVID-19
INVESTIGATING
ITS LEGACY
WARNING!
PATHOGENS
DETECTED
Proceed with caution. You are entering a zone where a number of dangerous
pathogens will be handled, ranging from the Black Death and the Spanish flu to
the latest menace to humanity, COVID-19. Please ensure that the necessary
safety measures have been taken before studying the evolution of viruses,
learning how the plague that struck medieval Europe was cured and uncovering which
diseases are now being targeted by the WHO. It is advised that you prepare
yourself before examining precisely what viruses are and how the immune system
and vaccines work to fight them off. Special precautions may be required before
the final stage of your journey, in which you will explore whether viruses are
currently flourishing in space and discover why some viruses are in fact
necessary for the existence of life.
PANDEMICS
THE
EVOLUTION OF VIRUSES 10
HISTORIC PANDEMICS
16
THE BLACK DEATH
HISTORY OF
THE BLACK DEATH 24
LAZZARETTO ISLANDS
30
SCOURGE 32
PLAGUE DOCTORS
34
HOW TO CURE
THE BLACK DEATH 46
INSIDE AN APOTHACARY
48
ANATOMY OF A
PHYSICIAN 50
INFLUENZA
SPANISH FLU 54
DAY IN THE
LIFE OF A FLU MEDIC 62
THE FLU OF ’57
AND ’68 64
HOW FLU WORKS
68
THE SCIENCE
YOUR IMMUNE SYSTEM
72
WHAT IS A
VIRUS? 82
VIRUS VS BACTERIA
88
EBOLA 90
RISE OF THE SUPERBUGS
92
SMALLPOX VACCINE
96
10
PIONEERING SCIENTISTS & MEDICS 98
COVID-19 AND
THE FUTURE OF VIRUSES COVID-19 104
INSIDE A COVID-19
TEST LAB 112
HOW THE VACCINE
WORKS 114
THE WHO’S
WAR ON VIRUSES 118
SPACE
VIRUSES 124
WHY WE NEED VIRUSES
126
ANCIENT OUTBREAKS
THE
EVOLUTION OF VIRUSES 10
Find out
when and how the very first viruses emerged on planet Earth
HISTORIC PANDEMICS
16
These
devastating outbreaks claimed millions of lives across the world
THE
EVOLUTION OF VIRUSES
EXPLORING
THE MYSTERIOUS ORIGINS OF OUR PLANET’S SMALLEST PARASITES
WRITTEN BY
JAMES HORTON
P12
Viruses are curious biological entities. They are obligate parasites; unable to
replicate on their own, they instead exist by hijacking the cellular apparatus
of other cells to replicate and proliferate. As such, they are simplistic – so
simple, in fact, that they don’t satisfy all the criteria to be considered
‘alive’.
P16
HISTORIC PANDEMICS
OVER MILLENNIA, EPIDEMICS AND PANDEMICS HAVE KILLED MILLIONS ALL OVER THE
WORLD, EVEN CONTRIBUTING TO THE DOWNFALL OF POWERFUL CIVILISATIONS
WRITTEN BY BALJEET PANESAR
Diseases
have ravaged humanity since ancient times; 5,000 years ago, an epidemic wiped
out a village in China, and 3,000-year-old Egyptian mummies show the signs of
smallpox. As humans have spread across the world, infectious diseases have
spread too; nothing has killed more humans than disease-causing bacteria and
viruses.
In
prehistoric times, outbreaks of disease would be confined to one community. However,
once trade and commerce allowed humans to interact with different animals,
ecosystems and populations, it became much easier for diseases to spread and
conquer the world. The Plague of Justinian, for example, spread across the Byzantine
Empire’s trade route through Asia, North Africa, Arabia and Europe and perhaps helped
to initiate the downfall of this ancient civilisation, thereby changing the
course of world history.
Between
pandemics, humans have battled against measles, smallpox, influenza and polio,
diseases that have killed millions of people over hundreds of years. Only
smallpox has been eradicated – the others are still with us today.
Typically,
over the last few hundred years pandemics have struck humans every ten to 50
years. Over more recent years, however, they have become more frequent and more
deadly and are spreading more quickly.
1
LOCATION
Athens,
Greece
DATE
430 BCE
DEATH TOLL
75,000-100,000
OUTBREAK
PLAGUE OF ATHENS
More than
2,400 years ago, as the cities of Athens and Sparta were battling in the
Peloponnesian War, a deadly illness ripped through Athens, striking fear and
panic into her citizens. The disease reached Athens via the port city of
Piraeus, killing almost a third of its population, spreading throughout Greece
and the eastern Mediterranean.
To protect
the people of Athens, its leader, Pericles, ordered the Athenians to move
within the city’s newly built ‘long walls’, but this gave the disease the
perfect conditions in which to thrive and quickly infect more of the Athenian
population.
In History
Of The Peloponnesian War, the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, who fell
victim to the disease and survived, wrote that “people in good health were all
of a sudden attacked by violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation
in the eyes, the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody
and emitted an unnatural and fetid breath”. Despite written evidence of the
disease its cause isn’t known, though typhoid fever and Ebola are
possibilities.
Months
later, the disease finally subsided and for a brief period the Athenians were
granted clemency, but it would strike twice more, forcing Athens to surrender
to Sparta in 404 BCE and ending Athens’ domination in ancient Greece.
2
LOCATION
Roman Empire
D A T E
165–180 CE
DEATH TOLL
5,000,000
OUTBREAK
ANTONINE
PLAGUE
A gruesome and
disfiguring disease named after the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was
brought to Rome at the height of the Roman Empire. As soldiers returned from battle
in the Near East, they brought home more than just pride and victory. Once they
reached Rome, there was no stopping the disease and it spread throughout
Europe, having already raced across Asia Minor, Greece and Italy.
The disease
caused fevers, chills, black diarrhoea and red and black papules on skin, which
caused severe scarring after they had scabbed – a sign that their bearer had survived
the disease. For two to three weeks victims would suffer until they could fight
no longer. Victims would first experience symptoms two weeks after being
infected, a feature that allowed it to spread rapidly all over the empire. The
disease was probably smallpox, and it was documented by the Greek doctor Galen.
Up to 2,000
people were killed per day, a fate that awaited some ten per cent of the
empire’s soldiers, but in some places up to a third of the Roman population
would perish, decimating the empire’s army. In response, all offensive
campaigns were postponed – there were not enough men to fight. Eventually, freed
slaves, gladiators and criminals – who normally would not qualify for military
service – were recruited after Germanic tribes began to claim more of the Roman
Empire’s territory.
Over the
next two decades the empire would experience two more outbreaks, ultimately
contributing to the downfall of one of the world’s largest ever empires.
3
LOCATION
Byzantine Empire
DATE
541–542 CE
DEATH TOLL
25,000,000+
OUTBREAK
PLAGUE OF
JUSTINIAN
By 540 CE,
the Byzantine Empire had conquered most of Italy and North Africa. Spain was
next on the list. But the following year, a new disease would emerge in the
port city of Pelusium, Egypt, and devastate the Byzantine capital of Constantinople
(modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). This disease – the bubonic
plague – would kill millions of people as it spread through the vast empire and
marked the start of the decline of one of the greatest empires in history.
Named after
the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, the Plague of Justinian is the first known
of the three deadly plague pandemics, caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis. As
a tribute to the emperor’s powerful realm, ships carrying grain and cloth were
sent to Constantinople from North Africa. However, these ships also carried
flea-infested rats that would infect people with plague throughout Asia, Arabia,
North Africa and Europe.
Victims of
the disease would develop a fever and black, pus-filled blisters called buboes.
Some victims would become delusional and paranoid. In a matter of days the victim
would perish; in Constantinople, the contagion would kill 5,000 people each
day, and in time around 40 per cent of the city’s population. Even the emperor
was infected, but he survived. Further outbreaks ravaged the Mediterranean Basin
and Europe for more than 200 years, resulting in the deaths of half of Europe’s
population despite the disease becoming less deadly with each outbreak. The
disease would finally disappear in 750 CE.
4
LOCATION
Mexico
DATE
1545–1548
DEATH TOLL
15,000,000
Outbreak
COCOLIZTLI EPIDEMIC
Following
the arrival of Europeans in present-day Mexico, one of the deadliest epidemics
in human history struck the Aztecs. The Aztecs were vulnerable; the Europeans
had brought disease from their faraway lands that the Aztecs had never
encountered and had no immunity against. Of the three epidemics that ravaged Mexico
during the 16th century, it was the second outbreak that would be the most
devastating, wiping out up to 80 per cent of the indigenous population.
The natives
named the mysterious disease ‘cocoliztli’, which means ‘pestilence’ in the
local Nahuatl language. The disease caused fevers, hallucinations and bleeding
from the eyes, mouth and nose. Victims would succumb to the disease between
three and four days after infection. Hundreds of people perished each day.
For 500
years the cause of the epidemic had been unknown, but a recent study found that
a rare strain of salmonella called Salmonella paratyphi C may have been
responsible. The bacteria are known to cause enteric fevers in humans, for
example typhoid, but this strain of salmonella seldom causes disease in humans
today.
5
LOCATION
Marseille,
France
DATE
1720–1723
DEATH TOLL
100,000
GREAT PLAGUE
OF MARSEILLE
After
travelling in the eastern Mediterranean for about a year, a ship called the
Grand Saint-Antoine arrived at its final destination, the port city of
Marseille. Its cargo of silk and cotton was destined for a trade show, but
hidden among the luxurious goods was the bacteria Yersinia pestis, which would
soon be responsible for the Great Plague of Marseille. During the voyage,
several men had died on board, including a passenger who perished two months
before the ship’s arrival in Marseille. Despite the signs of bubonic plague on the
ship, it was only quarantined for a few days, resulting in Western Europe’s
last major outbreak of bubonic plague.
Within days
of arriving in Marseille, the disease claimed its first victims. Corruption,
negligence and misinformation all contributed to the spread of the disease;
officials even paid doctors to diagnose the disease as pestilential fever, not
plague. Only two months later, once the disease could no longer be contained,
were measures
taken to
reduce the spread of the epidemic. These included stopping trade, quarantining
people, burying corpses and disinfecting the
city. As for
the fate of the Grand Saint-Antoine? The ship was burned off the coast of
Marseille.
三五班聯絡簿
20220612~20220810
1 GB Time BK1 (答案寫在小藍本)
5/15~P15
6/15~P30
6/17~P60
6/22~P85
GB Time BK2
6/24~P30
6/29~P60
7/01~P90
7/06~P107
GB Time BK3
7/08~P30
7/13~P60
7/15~P90
7/20~P120
7/22~P137
GB Time BK4
7/27~P30
7/29~P60
8/03~P90
8/05~P120
8/10~P137
https://www.facebook.com/groups/622684817776416/posts/5454716561239860/
作答範圍請參考FB社團貼文下方的留言
GB Friends BK1
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GB Friends BK5
GB 紅本Basic Grammar
2 RB 牛津 Level 1~9 PDF&MP3 (生字列在B5 26孔四折活頁紙)
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AZ階梯閱讀 閱讀理解+列生字+跟讀MP3
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20220515 (日)
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一三🏫二四班聯絡簿
20220508~20220514
Cerebral cortex The outermost part of the brain is called the cerebral cortex. Humans have an unusually large cerebral cortex. Deep grooves divide it into areas called lobes. Some mental tasks, such as processing language, are concentrated in specific lobes. However, most mental tasks involve many parts of the brain working together in ways that are not yet understood.
From the Author to the Reader
The use of history is to give value to the present hour. Ralph Waldo
Emerson
The old term "western civilization" no longer holds. World
events and the common needs of all humanity are joining the culture of Asia
with the culture of Europe and the Americas, to form for the first time a world
civilization.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
This book is distinctive in three ways. First, it connects the past
to the present. History is something more than "one damned thing after
another," as a famous historian once complained. That type of history is
more likely to give intellectual indigestion than intellectual understanding. This
does not mean that only the study of current affairs is useful and worth while.
Rather it means that the past should be
analyzed in a manner that is meaningful for the present, and that
the relationship between past and present should be noted and emphasized. This
is why each of the four parts of this volume ends with an essay entitled
"What It Means for Us Today."
The second distinctive feature of this book is that it connects not
only the past and the present but also the present and the future. Many argue
that history cannot be used to foresee the future because it is not an exact
science like chemistry or physics. They argue that history deals with human
beings whose actions cannot be predicted with the precision and certainty with
which a chemist can predict what will hap pen when element A is combined with
element B. Therefore it is argued that the historian can not use the past with
the confidence with which a scientist can use predictable experiments in the
laboratory.
Ix
X
On first thought this argument seems correct, but it we think again
we find that it is false. Its error becomes clear if we compare meteorologists
with historians. Meteorologists are very successful in predicting that tornados
will strike in this region or that, and therefore they are considered
scientists. But meteorologists cannot predict which house in a given region
will be struck and which house will not. This does not mean that meteorology is
not a science. It only means that different sciences provide different levels
of predictability. Therefore chemists with their flasks can predict more precisely
than meteorologists with their gauges. Yet meteorology remains a valid science
with useful predictive purposes, and it is becoming steadily more precise with
the use of computers and satellites.
So it is with history. It cannot be used like a crystal ball to
predict which political party will win or what national leader will be assassinated
or which country will have a revolution or where a war will break out. But
history, properly studied, shows what combination of conditions and policies
have resulted in the past in assassinations and revolutions and wars. If we
understand such past patterns, then we have some guide to the present and the
future. But if we have not studied the past, the present will seem mysterious and
the future terrifying.
The last chapter in this volume is entitled "Second Industrial
Revolution: Global Repercussions." It shows that all societies today-developed
and underdeveloped, capitalist and socialist are experiencing profound internal
disruptions as well as the external threat of "nu clear winter." If
we end our history with that chapter, the future will indeed seem hopeless. For
this reason the final chapter is followed by a concluding essay entitled
"Human Prospects,' in which we try to find some guidelines from our study
of the past and present so that we can have some idea what to expect in the
future.
This brings us to the third distinctive feature of this book, which
is that it is a world his tory. It deals with the entire globe rather than with
some one country or region. It is concerned with all peoples, not just with
Western or non Western peoples. It is as though you, the reader, were perched
on the moon looking down on our whole vast planet. From there your viewpoint
would be different from that of an observer liv ing in Washington, D.C.,
London, or Paris-or for that matter, in Peking, Delhi, or Cairo.
We cannot truly understand either West ern or non-Western history
unless we have a global overview that encompasses both. Then we can see how
much interaction there is be tween all peoples in all times, and how important
that interaction is in determining the course of human history.
At first the interaction was fitful and rather slight. But then the
Europeans Columbus and da Gama set forth on their overseas explorations. In the
following decades they and their successors brought all parts of the world into
direct contact, and the intimacy of that contact has grown steadily to the
present day. By contrast, the many human communities prior to 1500 had existed
in varying degrees of isolation. Yet this isolation was never absolute. During
the long millennia before the European discoveries, the various branches of the
human race had interacted one with the other-though the precise degree to which
they did differed enormously according to time and location. The details of
this teraction, from rly human his tory to roughly the year 1500, are the
subject of this book. Following that date, the earth, in relation to
humankind's growing communication and transportation facilities, has been
steadily shrinking faster and faster, so that today it has become a
"spaceship earth." a "global village."
If we accept the fact that all peoples share a common world history,
how can we possibly learn about the whole world by taking a single course or
reading a single book? Some historians say that world history, by definition,
encompasses all civilizations, and thus it is a subject far too broad for
classroom purposes. Western civilization, they say, is barely manage able by
itself; how can all the other civilizations including the Chinese, the Indian,
and the Middle Eastern-also be encompassed? The answer, of course, is that they
cannot, and that world history, thus defined, is obviously impracticable. But
such a definition is inaccurate and misleading. World history is not the sum of
histories of the civilizations of the world, just as Western history is not the
sum of the histories of the countries of the West.
If the study of Western civilization were simply a series of surveys
of British history, of German history, of French, Italian, Spanish, Balkan, and
the rest, Western civilization would not be a feasible subject of study. Yet,
in fact, it is feasible, and the reason is that the approach is not
agglomerative. Rather although it naturally considers the essential internal
developments of the principal states, it focuses on those historical forces or
movements that affected the West as a whole, such as Christianity, Islam, the
Crusades, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the French Revolution, the
scientific and industrial revolutions, and so forth. So it is with world history,
though the stage in this case is global rather than regional, and the emphasis
consequently is on movements of worldwide in fluence.
In the first half of this text, we will see that in Paleolithic
times, for example, humans emerged in Africa and gradually spread through
Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas. The lateful breakthrough to agriculture
occurred during the neolithic period, followed by metalworking and assorted
other crafts and leading to urban life and civilization. This in turn led to the
development of the great Eurasian civilizations the Chinese, Indian, Middle
Eastern, and European-which for millenia developed autonomously along parallel
lines. The amount of interaction among Eurasian civilizations varied as a
result of powerful interregional historical forces such as Hellenism,
Christianity, Buddhism, and the recurring invasions from the central Eurasian
steppes.
xi
The second half of this World History text, by contrast, focuses on
the emergence of West ern Europe as the occurrence of greatest global
significance in early modern times. At the end of the fifteenth century, Europe
was only one of four Eurasian centers of civilization, and by no means the most
prominent. By the end of the eighteenth century, Western Europe had gained control
of the ocean routes, had organized an immensely profitable worldwide commerce,
and had conquered vast territories in the Americas and in Siberia. Thus, this
period stands out in the perspective of world history as one of transition from
the regional isolation of the pre 1492 era to the West European global domination
of the nineteenth century.
If the early modern period is seen from this viewpoint, then it
becomes apparent at once that the traditional topics of European his tory are
irrelevant for world history and must be discarded. In their place,
accordingly, the following three general topics are emphasized in this study:
1. The roots of European expansion (why Europe, rather than one of
the other Eurasian centers of civilization, expanded throughout the world).
2. The Confucian, Moslem, and non-Eurasian worlds on the eve of
Europe's expansion (their basic conditions and institutions, and the manner in
which they affected the nature and course of European expansion).
3. The stages of European expansion (Iberian
stage, 1500-1600; Dutch, French, and British stage, 1600-1763;
Russian Siberian
stage).
This organization allows us to clarify the main trends in world
history during these centuries, and in a manner no more difficult to understand
than the very different organization usually followed in the European History
course. Also, the reader should note that the role of Western Europe in this
early modern period is emphasized, not because of any Western orientation, but
because from a global view point Europe at this time was in fact the dynamic
source of global change. This is true also for the nineteenth century when the
unifying feature of world history was Europe's domination of the globe.
Finally, in the twentieth century, world history becomes the story of the
growing reaction against Western domination and the dangerous groping toward a
new world balance.
This, in a nutshell, is the rationale and structure of world
history. It is a structure that is no more complex than that of Western history.
The difference is merely that the stage is our planet, not just the continent
of Europe.
Acknowledgments
